Advancing ethnobiology for the ecological transition and a more inclusive and just world: a comprehensive framework for the next 20 years.

This opinion piece, written by ethnobiologists from different parts of the world, emphasizes the importance of ethnobiology research in advancing contemporary biology, natural resource management, biodiversity conservation, sustainable development, and, especially, contributing to the ecological transition and more just and inclusive world. To achieve these goals, it is essential to develop research and collaborate with social groups that live in close relationship with nature in research activities, such as Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLC), as well as Afro-descendants and other Marginalized, Minority or Minoritized Communities (AMMC). Ethnobiology can identify and provide locally appropriate solutions to local problems, enabling sustainable resource management at the landscape level. The text explores important aspects that need to be considered to guide the future of ethnobiology in the next 20 years, aiming to integrate and amplify previous discussions held in the discipline and identify points that demand ongoing attention. This paper highlights reflections from diverse researchers, emphasizing how ethnobiology can embrace different perspectives and employ rigorous analysis of complex phenomena toward effective policies and practices. This approach holds the potential to address the challenges the planet is currently facing in the coming decades.

Variation of local zoological knowledge about Southern river otter and other semi-aquatic mammals in Nahuel Huapi National Park (Argentina).

BACKGROUND: The huillín (Lontra provocax, Thomas 1908) is an otter, endemic to southern Argentina and Chile. It is in danger of extinction. In the Nahuel Huapi National Park and surroundings is the only freshwater, known and stable population of huillín in Argentina. In this park, several urban and rural centers coexist with this species. The main objective of our work was to answer: How does the local zoological knowledge (LZK) vary about the huillín, particularly its identification and sighting, among people from different social groups, with different ages and gender, who live in the rural or urban environment and with different periods of permanence in the place? METHODS: Ninety-six written interviews were conducted using visual stimuli to ensure that interviewees refer to the huillín. In addition, we also inquire about the LZK of other species with which it can be confused. Additional open interviews were conducted with participants who observed the huillín to determine the georeferencing of the reported sites and include them on a final map. RESULTS: 95% of people identified the huillín and this was confused with the coipo in 3% and with the american mink, in 5%. The results show that, in general, the LZK did not vary significantly with the sociocultural characteristics of the participants, showing a remarkable homogeneity. However, people in rural areas are more likely to observe the species than people in urban areas. Moreover, people between 20 and 40 years of age are more likely to observe the huillín. The LZK mapping has identified areas that are consistent with and/or adjacent to official source records. Other areas have also been identified that may provide new information. CONCLUSION: With this participatory work, we realize that the species is recognized by urban and rural inhabitants and very few confused it. The homogeneity in the LZK found constitutes a kick for the realization of other participatory studies that promote lines of research, action and management that improve the quality of the environments where the only freshwater, known and stable population of the huillín in Argentina lives.

Urban medicinal plant use: Do migrant and non-migrant populations have similar hybridisation processes?

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Urban migrant herbal medicine is an important topic on a global scale. Through bibliographical analysis of published studies we can get an overview of the different hybridisation processes at work in cities around the world, the main medicinal plants used and the principal ailments treated. We analysed the differential characteristics of urban ethnobotanical studies involving transnational migrant and non-migrant populations, in order to contribute useful information for the design of public health policies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A systematic and integrative revision was conducted, leading to a final selection of 66 primary sources, including studies with and without immigrants. In both cases, richness (S), considered as the sum of all species cited in the work, botanical families and reported ailments were recorded. Based on the work of Ladio and Albuquerque (2014) the main hybridisation processes identifiable in the literature were assessed. These were: fusion, relocation, re-combination of different species, their restructuring as medicinal targets, spatial segregation in usage, innovations found in the circulation and consumption of the plants, and the presence of simultaneous coexistence of different symbolic universes in plant medical practices. DATA ANALYSIS: This was qualitative and quantitative, including both in-depth interpretative content analysis of the studies and frequency analysis of numerical data, such as species richness, botanical families, ailments and the hybridisation processes detected. A multinomial logistic regression model was used to analyse whether the probability of medicinal plant hybridisation processes occurring was the same in literature with and without migrants. RESULTS: A total of 522 medicinal species formed part of the main urban ethnobotany worldwide; the majority were cosmopolitan in distribution and belonged to the Asteriaceae and Lamiaceae families. Only 21% of these species appeared in both migrant and non-migrant studies. Most were used for gastrointestinal and hepatic ailments. Surprisingly, culture-related illnesses were not frequently mentioned, probably due to lack of recognition and re-interpretation by authors. Logistic analysis showed that in the studies with migrants, relocation and restructuring of plant use were the most frequently identified processes, while in the studies involving only non-migrants fusion was 4 times more likely to be found than in studies with migrants. CONCLUSIONS: Our research on hybridisation processes shows that cities constitute an environment that fosters a rapid exchange of practices and knowledge about the available species. Studies with migrants have shown that they reproduce traditional models in their use of plants, and so relocation and restructuring of their herbal medicine are the principal processes. Health risks in this case are related to the difficulties faced by these groups in obtaining their plants and reproducing their practices. In the case of fusion processes observed in non-migrants, who do not normally have a long history or much experience of plant use, errors or poisoning may result from misuse. This information highlights the importance of considering these processes in health policies, particularly when there are no significant quality controls of these resources.

Local botanical knowledge of native food plants in the semiarid region of Brazil.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to investigate the local botanical knowledge of native food plants in three rural communities, located in the semiarid region of Paraíba State, Brazil, verifying possibilities of differences of knowledge among communities and between men and women. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews about native plant knowledge and use were conducted with all householders in each community, totaling 117 informants. The species similarity among the communities of Pau D'Arco, Várzea Alegre, and Barroquinha was compared with Jaccard index, and the use value index (UVgeneral, UVcurrent, UVpotential) was used to determine the most important species. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to compare the use values among communities and genders. The consensus factor among the informants was calculated according to the uses cited, and the Wilcoxon test was used to compare the use values between men and women. RESULTS: We recorded 9 species belonging to 8 genera and 8 families in Várzea Alegre; 10 species, 9 genera, and 9 families in Barroquinha; and 7 species, 7 genera and 7 families in Pau D'Arco. Spondias tuberosa Arruda (Anacardiaceae) in Várzea Alegre, Spondias sp. (Anacardiaceae) in Barroquinha, and Ximenia americana L. (Olacaceae) in Pau D'Arco were the most prominent species. Preparation methods are slightly different in the three communities, and there is low similarity about species use among the communities. Regarding gender, the analysis of use value among the communities evidenced significant differences only for UVgeneral among women, specifically between Barroquinha and Pau D'Arco. For men and women within each community, there is a difference only for UVpotential in Barroquinha. CONCLUSION: This study showed that the residents of the three rural communities have limited knowledge of native food plants found in their communities, but they know where to find them, which parts they may use and how to consume them. The fact is that men know plants that are more distant from the residences and women know those that are next to them.

Herbolaria migrante boliviana en un contexto periurbano del Noroeste Argentino / Herbal medicine used by Bolivian migrants in a peri-urban context in Northwest Argentina

Se estudió la herbolaria de una población migrante boliviana de un barrio de la ciudad de San Salvador de Jujuy (Jujuy, Argentina) que sufre notorias condiciones de vulnerabilidad social y sanitaria, así como fuertes procesos de estigmatización. Desde una aproximación etnobotánica, se realizaron entrevistas abiertas y semiestructuradas a personas adultas. Se relevaron 89 especies medicinales empleadas para el tratamiento de 43 dolencias. Las más consensuadas fueron Matricaria chamomilla, "manzanilla" (62%) y Ruta chalepensis, "ruda" (50%). Se distinguieron cinco ambientes de recolección de plantas siendo el más importante "casa y alrededores" (46%). Gran parte de las especies seleccionadas son adaptógenas (plantas generadoras de bienestar, empleadas para el stress). La herbolaria casera parece ser una alternativa terapéutica clave de los bolivianos en Jujuy permitiéndoles a las familias sobrellevar situaciones difíciles de stress, desarraigo y discriminación. Esta información puede ser útil para las instituciones de salud con el fin de mejorar la atención y el diagnóstico en situaciones de incertidumbre.

A study was undertaken of the herbolarium of a migrant Bolivian population living in San Salvador de Jujuy (Jujuy, Argentina) in conditions of marked social and health vulnerability; they also suffer strong stigmatization processes. Using an ethnobotanical approach, open and semi-structured interviews were conducted with adults. A total of 89 medicinal species were recorded, which were used to treat 43 ailments. The plants with the highest consensus were Matricaria chamomilla, "manzanilla" (chamomile) (62%) and Ruta chalepensis, "ruda" (50%). Five plant resource gathering environments were identified, the most important being "dwelling and surroundings" (46%). A large proportion of the plant species selected are adaptogens (plants that generate wellbeing, used to deal with stress). Home prepared herbal medicine appears to be a key therapeutic option for Bolivians in Jujuy, enabling families to endure difficult situations associated with stress, separation from family roots, and discrimination. This information can be of use to health institutions, with the aim of improving care and diagnosis in situations of uncertainty.

Plantas medicinales comercializadas en la ciudad de San Salvador de Jujuy (Argentina) y su calidad botánica / Medicinal plants traded in San Salvador de Jujuy city (Argentina) and its botanical quality

Doce especies medicinales (Matricaria chamomilla, Senna alexandrina, Equisetum giganteum, Tilia cordata, Valeriana officinalis, Malva sylvestris, Illicium verum, Peumus boldus, Picrasma excelsa, Borago officinalis, Passiflora caerulea y Baccharis articulata), las más comercializadas en la ciudad de San Salvador de Jujuy, fueron evaluadas según sus modos de comercialización, su calidad botánica, sus usos y rol en la medicina urbana. Se relevaron 31 sitios de expendio para la obtención de muestras representativas, posteriormente se realizó un análisis macroscópico, y en complementación, una indagación bibliográfica. Los resultados indicaron que estas especies son comercializadas incumpliendo normativas vigentes de presentación y rótulo. La mitad de las muestras evidencian signos de adulteración. Si bien estas especies son de amplia difusión y consumo, en pocas sus usos han sido validados por la literatura etnofarmacológica. Se concluye que esto podría generar un descreimiento en la fitoterapia.

Twelve medicinal species (Matricaria chamomilla, Senna alexandrina, Equisetum giganteum, Tilia cordata, Valeriana officinalis, Malva sylvestris, Illicium verum, Peumus boldus, Picrasma excelsa, Borago officinalis, Passiflora caerulea and Baccharis articulata), the most sold in the city of San Salvador de Jujuy, were evaluated according to general aspects of marketing, its botanical quality, its uses and role in urban medicine. . We have performed an urban inquiry in 31 sites of commercialization to obtain representative samples, then plants were analyzed by morphological and micrographic methods, and bibliographical research. The results have indicated that the presentation and labels of plants packages are marketed in inappropriate way in relation to national regulations. Half of the samples show signs of adulteration. Although these species are highly consumed by the people, few have been validated by ethno-pharmacological literature. We conclude that this situation could lead to discredit to phytoterapy.

¿Qué saben sobre plantas empleadas en medicina tradicional los niños de una escuela primaria de S. S. De Jujuy, Argentina? / What do children at a primary school in S. S. De Jujuy, Argentina know about plants used in traditional medicine?

Este trabajo muestra resultados preliminares de un taller realizado con los alumnos de 7mo grado de la Escuela Primaria Nro. 190 "Dr. Macedonio Graz" que provienen de familias inmigrantes bolivianas y que habitan en la ciudad de S. S. de Jujuy. Se indagó sobre el conocimiento botánico relacionado al uso de especies medicinales y las formas de adquisición-transmisión de ese conocimiento, así como también el rol que cumple la institución educativa como espacio de apertura a temas vinculados a la realidad local. Se emplearon técnicas propias de la metodología participativa que se utiliza en la indagación etnobotánica. Los datos se analizaron cualitativamente. Los resultados arrojaron 42 especies con fines medicinales siendo la especie de mayor frecuencia de uso Ruta sp. "ruda" (67%). Las familias botánicas más representativas fueron Asteraceae (20%) y Lamiaceae (17%). Los órganos vegetales más usados fueron las hojas (54%) y la dolencia más común tratada con estas especies fue para el "dolor de estómago" (25%). Se distinguieron tres formas de aprovisionamiento de plantas (campo, casa, comercio) siendo el campo (49%) el ambiente más frecuente. El modo más significativo de transmisión de este conocimiento fue a través de los abuelos (29%). Se pudo revalorizar el uso de las plantas medicinales que aún sigue vigente en los alumnos, contribuyendo a la generación de conciencia colectiva sobre la importancia de la conservación de los saberes como parte de la identidad local que se construye y se mantiene a través de generaciones. (AU)

Sampling problems in Brazilian research: a critical evaluation of studies on medicinal plants

This work compiled Brazilian articles regarding medicinal plant use by local communities in order to analyze the most common sampling problems and if research characteristics can influence the presence of sampling irregularities. We focused on studies about medicinal plants that present a species-indications list and had a quantitative nature. The proportion of works with and without sampling problems was evaluated considering the journal impact factor, period of publication, community status (urban x rural), sample type, presence of testing hypothesis and presence of research questions. We found that an alarming proportion of papers had some kind of sampling problems (48.39% serious and 19.35% moderate). The most common problems were related to: lack of information regarding the sample size or the universe, small sample sizes and selection of specialists based on obscure criteria. We could not find a significant influence between our tested variables and the occurrence of sampling problems, except for the community status (urban x rural). Results indicate that a significant amount of intracultural diversity is not properly captured, taking into consideration both the population as a whole and a group of interest in the community (= healers).

Etnobotánica aplicada en Patagonia: la comercialización de malezas de uso comestible y medicinal en una feria urbana de San Carlos de Bariloche (Río Negro, Argentina) / Applied ethnobotany in Patagonia: the commercialisation of weed for food and medicinal use in an urban fair in San Carlos de Bariloche (Río Negro, Argentina)

Edible and medicinal weeds being commercialised for the first time in an urban horticulturalists’ fair were studied with an ethnobotanical approach in Bariloche (Patagonia, Argentina). The effects of three community workshops carried out previously were analysed, paying particular attention to the cosmovision, attitudes and behaviour of the horticulturalists regarding these plants. The methodology also included 25 open interviews, participative observation and a field surveys carried out together with the informants. A total richness of 29 species of edible and medicinal use was registered, the majority being of European origin. Before the workshops, the ideas and appreciation of the use of wild plants as food were generally negative, being associated with poverty. In contrast, their medicinal uses were more readily accepted. Following the workshops, however, attitudes and behaviour reflected a more positive general assessment, leading to their commercialisation and a marked tendency towards innovation in knowledge that could be combined with the participants’ traditional knowledge. The importance of this kind of applied ethnobotany project should be noted, and its contribution to the development of local communities.

Desde una aproximación etnobotánica, se estudiaron las malezas comestibles y medicinales comercializadas por primera vez en una feria urbana de horticultores de Bariloche (Patagonia, Argentina), analizando los alcances de tres talleres comunitarios llevados a cabo previamente, y teniendo particular interés en las concepciones, actitudes y comportamientos acerca de dichas plantas entre los horticultores. La metodología incluyó también 25 entrevistas libres, observación participante y relevamientos a campo junto a informantes. Se registró una riqueza de total de 29 especies de uso medicinal y comestible, la mayoría de origen europeo. Antes de los talleres, las concepciones y valoraciones acerca de la utilización de las malezas como alimento eran en general negativas, asociándolas con la pobreza. En cambio, sus usos medicinales fueron mejor aceptados. Sin embargo, luego de los talleres, las actitudes y los comportamientos reflejaron valoraciones generales más positivas resultando en la comercialización de las mismas y una marcada tendencia hacia la innovación de saberes que podían hibridizarse con los saberes tradicionales de las personas. Se rescata la importancia de este tipo de proyectos de etnobotánica aplicada y su aporte al desarrollo de las comunidades locales.

Conocimiento tradicional y autosuficiencia: la herbolaria rural en la Meseta Central del Chubut (Argentina) / Traditional knowledge and self-sufficiency: rural herbal medicine in Central Plain of Chubut (Argentine)

We studied the herbal use into a rural area of the Patagonian steppe inhabited predominantly by descendants of the mapuche - tehuelche indigenous people. This work emphasizes the versatility of medicinal species and their possible contribution to self-reliance of rural populations. The methodology was based on free and semistructured interviews, besides tours with informants. Respondents cited 45 medicinal species (52 percent native, 48 percent introduced) obtained mainly by harvesting and cultivation. The most common ailments treated with plants were gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases. The most culturally important species are the most versatile: Acantholippia seriphioides (wild thyme), Valeriana spp. (ñancolahuen), Mentha (mint) and Artemisia absinthium (ajenco), those plants that cover a wide spectrum of conditions. The body of knowledge on medicinal plants that we found reflects processes of adaptation to conditions of scarcity and self-sufficiency to combat diseases commonly treated in the household. This work highlights the importance of global, regional and local processes about herbal medicine building, even in isolated areas.

Se estudió la herbolaria utilizada en una zona rural de la estepa patagónica habitada predominantemente por descendientes del pueblo originario mapuche - tehuelche. Este trabajo pone énfasis en la versatilidad medicinal de las especies y su posible aporte a la autosuficiencia de las poblaciones campesinas. La metodología se basó en entrevistas libres y semiestructuradas además de recorridos junto a informantes. Los entrevistados citaron 45 especies medicinales (52 por ciento nativas, 48 por ciento introducidas) obtenidas principalmente por recolección y cultivo. Las dolencias más frecuentemente tratadas con plantas fueron gastrointestinales y respiratorias. Las especies con mayor importancia cultural son las más versátiles: Acantholippia seriphioides (tomillo silvestre), Valeriana spp. (ñancolahuen), Mentha spicata (menta) y Artemisia absinthium (ajenco), es decir, aquellas plantas que cubren un amplio espectro de afecciones. El cuerpo de conocimientos sobre plantas medicinales encontrado refleja procesos de adaptación a condiciones de escasez y de autosuficiencia para combatir dolencias comúnmente tratadas en el ámbito doméstico. Este trabajo pone en evidencia la importancia de procesos a nivel mundial, regional y local en la construcción de las herbolarias, aún en áreas totalmente aisladas.

Horticultural and gathering practices complement each other: a case study in a rural population of Northwestern Patagonia.

We investigated gathering and cultivating practices and how they complement each other in a rural population of Northwestern Patagonia. We analyzed plant diversity, species similarity, biogeographic origin, and plant use by means of semi-structured interviews and field visits. Pichi Leufu inhabitants used 173 species: 138 cultivated plants, mainly for edible purposes, and 45 wild species principally for medicinal use. Most cultivated species were exotic (91.3%), whereas gathered plants were both native and exotic. While locals maintained vegetable gardens, the adoption of greenhouses improved conditions for certain crops. The integration of novel practices with ancestral knowledge suggests resilient processes in this community, probably reflected in the dynamics of current horticultural and gathering practices, which complement each other.

Cultural transmission of traditional knowledge in two populations of North-western Patagonia.

BACKGROUND: In the present study we have investigated the cultural transmission of two types of traditional plant knowledge in two communities of North-western Patagonia, Argentina. In the Pilcaniyeu community, we studied the transmission of traditional knowledge related to horticultural practices in home-gardens, greenhouses and gardens; while in the community of Cuyin Manzano, we studied wild plant gathering customs. METHODS: Ethnobotanical fieldwork was conducted by means of semi-structured interviews, in which we investigated which plants are used, at what life history phase was learned, modes of transmission and who the principal transmitters were in childhood and adulthood. In both communities, each of this three aspects related to cultural transmission were categorized and the frequencies of each category were obtained. The total number of species recorded in each community was also calculated. Frequencies were analyzed with the Chi-square test of independence. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: In both communities, transmission of traditional plant knowledge begins at an early age, as a family custom, in which women play a predominant role. Wild plant use and horticultural knowledge continue to be learned during adulthood. This was particularly registered associated with horticultural learning, which receives greater influence from extension agents who are introducing new practices and technology. This outside influence, which implies novelty, could imply syncretism but also traditional knowledge loss. CONCLUSION: Given the remarkable acculturation processes occurring at present in rural communities of Northwestern Patagonia, it might be of vital importance to document traditional knowledge of ancient practices. Moreover, it could be interesting to share our results with both populations in order to encourage participatory activities within the communities which could enhance traditional knowledge horizontal transmission, particularly among elder adults and youngsters.

Early reproductive failure increases nectar production and pollination success of late flowers in south Andean Alstroemeria aurea.

Fertile ramets of bumblebee-pollinated Alstroemeria aurea, a clonal perennial native to the temperate forests of the southern Andes, produce single terminal inflorescences that may bear two or more temporally non-overlapping whorls of flowers. While fruit set is commonly high (>80%) among early-opening flowers, it is usually low (<20%) among late-opening flowers within ramets. Using flowering ramets with two whorls of flowers, we examined experimentally the following related hypotheses. First, late flowers act as a reserve of ovaries, increasing their likelihood of setting seed when early fruits abort due to either pollen or resource limitation. Second, where early fruit abortion has occurred, plants may actively ensure pollination of late flowers by increasing their attractants and rewards. In a natural population, we simulated (1) lack of pollen deposition in early flowers, by excising their stigmas just before receptivity, and (2) resource limitation, by removing all the leaves from an experimental flowering ramet. Treatments were applied to individual ramets according to a 2 × 2 factorial design. We found that when early flowers failed to set fruit due to stigma excision, nectar secretion and particularly pollen receipt strongly increased in late flowers. Higher pollen deposition contributed significantly to the observed five-fold increase in seed output of late flowers. Fruit and seed set from early flowers were more negatively affected by defoliation than that from late flowers. Defoliation did not interfere with a ramet's capacity to increase late reproductive output when early reproduction failed. These results support the assertion that late flowers act as a reserve of ovaries helping a plant to cope with an unpredictable environment. These results also suggest that plants may actively increase pollinator visitation by opportunistically increasing flower rewards.